Monday, December 30, 2019

Animal Research The Treatment And Prevention Of Diseases

Animal research plays an important role in the understanding of diseases by scientists as well as in the development of medical treatment that are effective. Animals normally provide scientists with models, which have complex living systems that consist of organs, cells and tissues (Fisher, 2014). These animal models not only interact with stimuli but they also react to it thereby giving researchers a picture of how a compound is moving through the living system as well as an idea of how that stimuli can react in the human body. Most animals’ researches are purposely used on the treatment and prevention of diseases. In addition, they are also used in the treatment of injuries. Mice and rats are the animals that are mostly used and they†¦show more content†¦Proponent’s views of animal-based research Even though there are many claims that are presented by animal activists why the use of animals for medical research should be banned, animal based experiments have contributed significantly in improving the quality and length of human lives. There are several ways in which animals are used in the conduct of human research (Fisher, 2014). First, animals are used in the development of new drugs that help in treatment of human diseases. There are many diseases that affect human beings such as diabetes, cancer, HIV/AIDS, heart diseases among others. In order to develop effective drugs to treat the above diseases, animals are used as models in researches that result in the development of drugs. The first benefit of using animal based research is that it has helped in the development of cancer drugs. Initially, the dominant methods that were used in the treatment of cancer were surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Due to conducting animal-based researches, scientists have managed to come up with new understanding of tumor biology, which helps in coming up with treatment methods that directly kill cancerous cells and which are molecularly different from the normal cells. The use of knowledge to design new drugs, which focus in the abnormalities, is referred as rational drug design and many people perceive it as the future reality for the treatment of cancer. Animal based research has also been used in the development of drugs

Thursday, December 26, 2019

Hope And Change The First African American President Of...

Hope and Change? History was made in 2008. The first African American was elected President of the United States. In Barack Obama’s acceptance speech he described his election as a defining moment and one that would bring change to America. Has that change come? Race relations have always been a topic of great debate, even more so since an African American was elected President. Can a black president change the way people think about race and its place in everyday life? As we are in Obama’s last year of his second term it is obvious that racial bias has seen little improvement in the United States. Trending polls point to no improvement, recent high profile events are keeping it in the news and there has been no substantial decrease in unemployment among blacks in America. Since electing the first African American President in 2008, there have been many new topics that polls can concentrate on. Everything from what America thinks about the historic election to what they think the future will hold because of it. What is evident is that the polls speak of an America that may still have hope but is not so certain that change is coming. A poll in November of 2008 showed that sixty-seven percent of voters thought that Obama would have a good first term and sixty-nine percent said they made them feel hopeful. Fifty-two percent thought his election will lead to better race relations. When looked at through the eyes of black/white,Show MoreRelatedHope And Change : The First African American President Of The United States1091 Words   |  5 PagesHope and Change? History was made in 2008. The first African American was elected President of the United States. In Barack Obama’s acceptance speech he described his election as a defining moment and one that would bring change to America. Has that change come? Race relations have always been a topic of great debate, even more so since an African American was elected President. Can a black president change the way people think about race and its place in everyday life? As we areRead MoreHow The 2008 Election Affected African American History912 Words   |  4 Pagesbe one of the darkest moments in African American history and ends with the ultimate triumph and fulfilment of a dream. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., who was the spiritual and political leader of the Civil Rights Movement, was gunned down and assassinated on April 4, 1968, in Memphis, TN (History.com). Those responsible assumed that this senseless act of violence would thwart and quell the efforts of African Americans in the quest for equality in the United States of America, however, this deed cementedRead MorePresident John F. Kennedy1608 Words   |  7 Pageshas an opinion about the president. Whether they like the president or dislike the president, someone has an opinion. There are only a few good president in the history of America that people can actually say they liked and enjoyed where they lead this country. One of those few presidents was President John F. K ennedy. Elected in 1960 as the 35th president of the United States, Kennedy became the youngest and first Roman Catholic president. He won the hearts of many Americans with his youthfulness andRead MoreBarack Obama: Yes, We Can! Famous Speech680 Words   |  3 Pagesand first African-American president of the United States of America. Barack Obama is married to First Lady Michelle Obama and together have two children, Malia and Sasha. President Obama was elected November 4, 2008 and is still currently running in the office as President. Obama believes in change and is his inaugural focus for each campaign and overall aim of being President of the United States. The famous â€Å"Yes We Can† speech was delivered by Barack Obama, the first African-American PresidentRead MoreReconstruction And The Rights Of Former Slaves. In The998 Words   |  4 Pages1860s the United States was a nation that had been ripped apart by the Civil War and left in torn pieces. The war left many white southerners stripped of their slaves, land, and in destroyed towns with little to eat. The only people worse off than the white southerners at this point in history were the black southerners who had nothing to their names but the freedom they had recently been granted which left them penniless and searching for a place to go. In hopes of a resolution president Abraham LincolnRead MoreThe Declaration Of Independence : A Significant Year For The Country963 Words   |  4 Pageselection this year is important as both candidates are fighting for and desperately in need of the African-American vote to win. The irony in this election is that not that long ago Afri can-Americans were not even allowed to vote. This paper sets out the historical struggles the African-American people faced in obtaining suffrage. The 1700’s marked the boom of the slave trade. African-Americans could barely get the law to see them as people, let alone give them the right to vote. The DeclarationRead MoreThe Medi A Very Important Role Of Today s Society865 Words   |  4 Pagesspectacle. He argues how Barack Obama’s media techniques led the campaign in his favour in the United States’ presidential election of 2008 (Kellner, 2009). With much publication, broadcasting and advertising resources, Barack Obama was able to attract supporters through his culture and race. The first democratic spectacle was that of Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton. In the first time in history, an African-American candidate and a woman candidate were running for office. With both campaigners leadingRead More Americas First Black President Essay1163 Words   |  5 PagesFor many years, American Presidents were viewed as being white and powerful leaders. Why were they only white? Is it because Americans felt Blacks were not smart enough to run a country on their own? African Americans were viewed as less dominate people and have been discriminated because of the color of their skin. In 2008, Barack Obama was elected President of the United States making him the first black president ever. In this paper, I will discuss how Barack makes a change and if America canRead MoreArticle Summary : Barack Obama And Celebrity Spectacle884 Words   |  4 PagesBarack Obama’s media techniques led the campaign in his favour in the United States’ presidential election of 2008 (Kellner, 2009). With much publication, broadcasting and advertising resources, Barack Obama was able to attract supporters through his culture and race. The first democratic spectacle was that of Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton. In the first time in history, there had been an African American candidate and the first woman candidate. With both campaigners leading the election in differentRead MoreThe Selma Incident Of The Civil Rights Movement1320 Words   |  6 Pages On November 4th, 2008, American voters elected Barack Obama president of the United States, the first time an African American candidate has been elected to the office of the presidency. This historic election was described by John Lewis, a longtime civil rights activist as â€Å"what comes at the end of the bridge in Selma†. (413) This was a reference to the incident on March 7th, 1965 when â€Å"police officers used clubs and tear gas against a group of civil rights demonstrators led by the reverend Martin

Saturday, December 21, 2019

Canadian Alliance on Mental Illness and Mental Health

Introduction Mental health and well-being are leading areas of research in current societies as concern about the number of illnesses related to mental health and the effects of these illnesses are of growing popularity. In light of this recent interest, the Canadian Alliance on Mental Illness and Mental Health (CAMIMH) has been coordinating an awareness week since 1992 which focuses on alleviating the stigma associated with mental illness (Richard, 2010). Many other organizations are showing their support and creating awareness weeks of their own. A Canadian study states that â€Å"20% of Canadians will personally experience mental illness during their lifetime† and that everyone is, in one way or another, affected by mental illness (Health Canada, 2002). Mental health is considered to be of great importance during youth and adolescence which is why further studies on post-secondary aged students are crucial. The objective of this research is to identify what causes stre ss for students, what resources are made available to them through the institution, if those resources are widely used, and how students cope with stress. The information used as findings in this paper was gathered through conducting an interview with a post-secondary student who was taking a full course load, was involved in extra-curricular activities, and had a part-time job. First, an analysis of current literature on achievement ideology, career aspirations, stressors, coping strategies, and socialShow MoreRelatedMental Health : A Global Crisis1599 Words   |  7 PagesMental Health: A Global Crisis Mental Health is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as â€Å"a state of well-being in which every individual realizes his or her own potential, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to her or his community (WHO, 2014).† Any deviation from that definition constitutes a mental health issue. It is important to note that mental health issues do not necessarily constitute a mental disorderRead Moreâ€Å"It Must Be Remembered That For The Person With Severe1407 Words   |  6 Pagesremembered that for the person with severe mental illness who has no treatment the most dreaded of confinements can be the imprisonment inflicted by his own mind, which shuts reality out and subjects him to the torment of voices and images beyond our own powers to describe†. Serious mental illness affects approximately 9.6 million people in the United States, or about 4.1% of the population.3 In addition to the many debilitating symptoms of serious mental illness, many people also lack insight into theRead MoreThe Stigma Of Mental Illness Essay1657 Words   |  7 Pagesor older, live with mental illness. This number represents 18.1% of all U.S. adults (National Institute of Mental Health, 2014). Stigma toward those who are seen as different have existed for as long as civilization itself, with the stigma for mental illness being one of the most prominent and long lasting that society has had to face throughout its ages (Arboleda-Florez Stuart, 2012). Increased understanding and awareness for those individuals suffering from mental illness is necessary for usRead MoreAbnormal Psychology and Therapy: Physical Illnesses and Disorders1228 Words   |  5 PagesTherapy If you have an infection, you go to the doctor. There are many different treatments for any number of physical illnesses and disorders, but what if the illness or disorder is in your mind? For psychology to have any validity as a science, research must show there is a common way to think, react, and feel amongst humans; uniform mental processes. So far, research has shown that one can study the behaviors of a small group and compare them to a larger population; however, some people’s thoughtRead MoreBirth Defects in differenct Cultures1229 Words   |  5 Pages Since the 1960s, the federal government introduced ways that mentally ill patients could live outside a mental hospital, where they were confined from the general public, and live a normal life. Many communities and mental centers were built to allow continuous and efficient care for those patients from their homes. Yet, the question remains whether or not the whole world has accepted mental illnesses. Many believe that the mentally ill should be hidden from society out of shame and humiliationRead MoreThe Principles Of Psychosocial Rehabilitation1472 Words   |  6 Pagesthey relate to the principle. The article that will be summarized in this answer will be Making the Case for Peer Support’ Report to the Mental Health Commission of Canada Mental Health Peer Support Project Committee. This journal is about the principle and value of peer support. The authors of this report believe that people who have experienced mental illness and gain a state of recovery can be a benefit to others who are starting their journey. Peer support is a benefit because it has the abilitiesRead MoreCan Suicide Be Prevented?. As Said In The Dictionary,1300 Words   |  6 Pageschoose suicide over life. I believe that, with the right efforts, many of these deaths can be prevented.   Ã‚  Ã‚   Although the majority of people who have a mental illness do not die by suicide, Paula Clayton, MD and medical director for the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention says that â€Å"Ninety percent or more of people who kill themselves have a mental disorder before the time of their death.† Clayton also states that about sixty percent of people who are suicidal fight major depression. In DoctorRead MoreBorderline Personality Disorder Essay example1013 Words   |  5 Pages(Biskin, R., Paris, J., 2012p. 1791). The symptoms of borderline personality disorder can be devastating. People with borderline personality disorder will always have strong emotions, spur of the moment thinking, and strong relationships. Through a health plan of therapies and medication, patients can see improvement in relationships and â€Å"vocational functioning† (â€Å"Borderline personality disorder,† 2013, p. 665). Dialectical behavior therapy is one of the many therapy types for people with the disorderRead MoreMental Illness And The Mentally Ill1913 Words   |  8 Pagesgroups of people in every class, country and race. The mentally ill are no exception to this fact. Mental illness has no bounds and can affect anyone, whether rich or poor, American or Canadian, black or white, it does not matter. People with a mental illness or disorder are looked at as dysfunctional, violent, unsuccessful, and even foul-smelling individuals. People with extreme cases of mental illness, such as schizophrenia and bi-polar disorder, are often called crazy, insane, and mad when i n actualityRead MoreThe Effects Of Nonpharmacological Interventions On The Population Of Adults With Schizophrenia Essay1595 Words   |  7 Pagesmedications, schizophrenia is a leading cause of global disability associated with high rates of hospitalizations, depression, and suicide attempts (Statistics Canada, 2015, para. 5). According to the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) (2016), â€Å"schizophrenia is a chronic and severe mental disorder that affects how a person thinks, feels, and behaves† (para. 1). Additionally, individuals with schizophrenia may experience varied symptoms including: delusions and hallucinations; movement and thought

Wednesday, December 18, 2019

Poverty And Its Effects On The Community - 1877 Words

Poverty can be expressed differently from many viewpoints (Spector, 2013). Poverty is characterized by their physical, mental, and spiritual state. Physically, individuals can be affected by the environment or other factors, such as, their lifestyle. Mentally, individuals affected by poverty are not educated or do not have the opportunity for advancement. Spiritually, they find themselves feeling of hopelessness. Poverty can co-exist within many subcultures that reside is particular areas, consider California. In California, there are dense populations that live below the poverty line that is also a part of other subcultures. When income, education, and lifestyles are compromised many health issues can arise. To comeback these harsh lifestyles, many groups have come together to improve and educate people who currently live in poverty. Health educators also manipulate their strategic efforts to have the most impact on the community. Economically-Disadvantaged Population When looking at poverty, some environmental exposure may be â€Å"battering, bullying, child abuse, gaming, obesity, spousal abuse, substance abuse, and violence† (Spencer, 2013). When predisposed to these lifestyles, future generations tend to cling onto violence, assuming that it is okay to behave in such a manner. As stated by Delisle, women are more affected by poverty due to their childbearing nature (2008). They are exposed to malnutrition due to the lack of access to resources necessary; and, in turn, theyShow MoreRelatedThe Effects Of Childhood Poverty On The Community And Society Essay2484 Words   |  10 Pages This paper will be introducing and discussing child poverty. The focus will be on the ongoing problem of child poverty within developed countries and the negative consequence of child poverty including its impacts on economic and social chances for those in poverty. I will be seeking to determine the negative effects of childhood poverty on the individ ual, whether that be an immediate effect, a lasting long-term effect, or something that does not show up until later on in life. Secondly IRead MoreThe Causes And Effects Of Poverty On Individuals And Communities Essay1950 Words   |  8 PagesThroughout our course, we have looked at the lives of those economically disadvantaged in our society. We have talked about the causes and effects of poverty on individuals and communities and looked at multiple in depth sociological studies. I have come to the conclusion that sociological research is not relevant until it is grounded in rigorous analysis that takes into account the complex nature of social categories. Likewise, sociological analysis means nothing in a vacuum. Its value lies in theRead MorePoverty, Social Disorganization And Their Effects On Crime Rates1444 Words   |  6 PagesAssignment #1 Poverty, Social Disorganization and Their Effects on Crime Rates SOC1A06 Professor Sandra Colavecchia Joseph Murray 400016517 Tuesday, October 20th 2015 Part B Article 1 Hannon, L. (2002). Criminal opportunity theory and the relationship between poverty and property crime. Sociological Spectrum, 22(3), 363-381. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02732170290062676 Hannon, Analyzes the level of poverty present in neighbourhoods in Austin, Texas and Seattle, Washington and the rates ofRead MoreThe Current Social Problem Of Poverty Essay1368 Words   |  6 Pagesgoing to discuss poverty a current social problem that I chose to focus on throughout this course. There are different factors such as economics, government, and culture that affect poverty. Poverty is not new to our communities and it impacts people of all ages. Poverty Poverty in our communities is getting worse and not enough is being done about this social problem. This is becoming more widespread especially during times of the global economic downturn. I learned that poverty is not having enoughRead MoreSocial Inequality Is A Persistent Issue That Affects The1106 Words   |  5 Pagesinequality is a persistent issue that affects the continuation of poverty and the sustainment of wealth. Poverty and wealth are derived from labels imposed by society dictating status, class and affluence. A vicious cycle, established through the disproportionate availability of opportunities and unequal distribution of resources, beings to erode the family unit, churches and communities. Therefore, social inequality impacts poverty and wealth through labeling, mass incarceration, crime, educationRead MoreDetermining The Main Cause Of Criminal Behavior1569 Words   |  7 Pagesor is it the environment? Crime can be defined in many different ways; different societ ies all over the world choose to define crimes differently. Poverty and crime have a very close relationship. The UN and the / World Bank have crime listed as one of the obstacles to tackle a country’s development. Countries and governments that are dealing with poverty often also have to tackle the issue of crime as they try to develop their country’s economy and society. A particular social problem like those categorizedRead MoreHealth Of Health And Global Health1460 Words   |  6 PagesGlobal health are both equally important in society. Public health focuses on a specific population or communities where as global health focus on health across national borders. The definition of poverty is being extremely poor, not having the sufficient funds. Poverty can have a negative effect on a person health because they do not have the sufficient funds for healthcare. A person living in poverty does not have the resources available; this can diminish the health of the individuals. Over billionsRead MoreCauses And Effects Of Poverty And Homeless People1696 Words   |  7 Pagesto be addressed is poverty and homeless people throughout the entire state. Some of the problems the are leading causes to poverty and homeless people is unemployment, which is leading to less to none employment opportunities Leading Causes of Poverty†, and income disparity which is leading to many families to not be able to pay bills, buy, or manage income. With the current issue of the causes and effects of poverty and Homelessness in North Carolina, I had to complete community service hours atRead MoreChild Poverty And Academic Achievement1448 Words   |  6 Pages Child Poverty and Academic Achievement Francesca Diona University of San Francisco According to the National Center for Children in Poverty, over 16 million children (22%) in the United States live below the federal poverty level, which is $23,550 per year for a family of four. Research has shown that a family requires an income of about twice that amount just to cover basic needs and expenses. Using these statistics, 45% of children in the US live in low-incomeRead MoreEffects Of Poverty On Children1553 Words   |  7 PagesHow Poverty Effects Children Makayla Ray University of Alabama in Birmingham Abstract This literature review of twelve previously published research articles has focused on summarizing some of the effects of poverty on children. The selected articles all focused on the major effect of poverty on children, and were sorted into four sub-categories or themes based upon a specific focus areas of this complex and not yet fully understood issue. These themes included developmental, educational

Friday, December 13, 2019

Zizek on Ideology and the Relationship Between Ideology and “The Real” Free Essays

Zizek on Ideology and the Relationship Between Ideology and â€Å"The Real† ` CMNS 410 Professor Rick Gruneau December 13, 2011 Zizek on Ideology and the Relationship Between Ideology and â€Å"The Real† Slavoj Zizek is one of the leading theorists on ideology since the 1990’s and his conceptions of the real versus the symbolic versus the imagined are of particular importance when dissecting the question ‘what is ideology? Zizek’s critique of ideology and attempt to unpack it’s inner workings is fascinating, he is a powerful intellectual who aims to expose the †fake† workings of society. In this paper I will outline Zizek’s definition and approach to the study of ideology, paying particular attention to the relationships he draws between ideology and â€Å"the real,† as opposed to â€Å"the imagined† and â€Å"the symbolic†. Zizek opens the book Mapping Ideology (1994) with the introduction â€Å"The Sp ectre of Ideology†, where he defines and openly criticizes the idea of ideology and its illusory personality. We will write a custom essay sample on Zizek on Ideology and the Relationship Between Ideology and â€Å"The Real† or any similar topic only for you Order Now First he presents us with the idea that ideology is a sort of matrix, â€Å"a generative matrix that regulates the relationship between visible and non-visible, imaginable and non-imaginable, as well as changes in that relationship† (italics mine, p. 1). He further explains not everything that seems to be ideological, necessarily is, claiming that unless there is a link to power relations in the social realm he does not consider something to be ideological. He points out that sometimes what we consider to be ideological in fact is not; but also how at other times, things which we may not perceive to be ideological, actually maintain a very strong ideological orientation. He states that the â€Å"starting point of the critique of ideology has to be the full acknowledgment of the fact that it is easily possible to lie in the guise of truth† – ideology that is – and this is an important realization for it ispels a common misconception we have of ideology, especially here in the west that, ideology is about lying or misleading others and society. Instead Zizek posits the idea that the content of a message is not what makes it ideological, but instead it is the â€Å"the way this content is related to the subjective position implied by its own process of enunciation† that makes it so (Zizek 1994, p. 8). In other words, regardless of whether the content (of a message or object or interaction) is true or false, it becomes ideological the moment that content functions to achieve â€Å"some relation of social domination† and even more importantly, he adds â€Å"in an inherently non-transparent way†, reiterating that often times ideology is in fact of a misleading nature but not necessarily in content (italics mine, p. 8); it is from this standpoint that we can begin to understand and critique the concept of ideology. It is important to note here, although Zizek stresses the importance of recognizing dynamics of power relations (rather than content) which constitutes ideology, he warns this can also be disadvantageous if it reduces â€Å"the cognitive value of the term ‘ideology’ and makes it into a mere expression of social circumstances† (p. 9). Considering this, as Gerofsky (2010) explains, Zizek takes on Hegel’s theory of the triad as a heuristic for further developing the theory of ideology, which is something I will address later in this paper, after we go a little bit deeper in defining ideology. According to Zezik then, a necessary condition for something to be ideological is that there must be a relation or motivation to power in some way, and it must be done so in a way which is not apparent to the addressees (Zizek, 1994). However this is a rather general and overarching consideration when defining the term ideology and it is important to deconstruct the term even further before we proceed in analyzing its inner workings and effect on society. Zizek states â€Å"ideology is a systematically distorted communication: a text in which under the influence of unavowed social interests (of domination, etc. a gap separates its ‘official,’ public meaning from its actual intention – that is to say, â€Å"we are dealing with an unreflected tension between the explicit enunciated content of the text and its pragmatic presuppositions† (Zizek, 1994, p. 10). Ideology is a system, he argues, of principles, views, theories â€Å"destined to convince us of its ‘truth’, yet actually serving some unavowed particular power interest† (p. 10). An example Zizek presents to illustrate this point is the way media portrayed the conflict and cause of the Bosnian war. News coverage consisted of innumerable accounts of the histories of not only Yugoslavia but â€Å"the entire history of the Balkan’s from medieval times† (p. 5). This incredible amount of information, of the struggles and relations between Bosnia and other countries over decades, if not centuries, gives audiences the impression that they must know and understand all the background information of this issue if they are to have an opinion on it or take sides, again presenting countless hours of information and debate on the issue. Zizek explains that although this is a sort of inversion of what we normally constitute as ideological messaging, and it is unlike the misrepresentation and incessant demonization of Saddam Hussein which was circulated to give justice to entering into the Iraq war, the Bosnian war ideological messaging that took place is in fact â€Å"more cunning,† the over exaggerated and false demonization of Saddam Hussein. ecause â€Å"to put it somewhat crudely, the ‘evocation of the complexity of circumstances’ serves to [defer] us from the responsibility to act† (p. 5). He explains that instead of withholding information (as the media most often does), or misrepresenting information (Saddam Hussein), in the case of the Bosnian war the media over saturates audiences with information to the point of immobilizing them to make a decision or take action against the fact that this war is spurred by political, economic and monetary power interests. Zizek explains the purpose of going into war was portrayed as a need to improve unacceptable human rights conditions in the country, and although human rights conditions may very well be unacceptable in that country, and then improve as a result of the invasion, the true motivations for that war (power, domination, money) were kept hidden. This also illustrates the point made earlier about ideology not necessarily needing to be false in its information, but rather hidden in motive, for the information they presented was by no means false or limited, it was excessive, which proves to be just as debilitating a strategy on the general public. Zizek’s examples and definitions of ideology discussed above demonstrate the division of ideology from Marx’s false consciousness theory (Gerofsky, 2010), but perhaps one of the most important classifications Zizek makes in the realm of ideology, is its connection to dislocation (dislocating truth from falsity) and how this relates to the idea of â€Å"the Real† (Stavrakakis,1997). Coming from the Lacanian theoretical background, the concept of Real versus Symbolic versus Imaginary is an integral part of Zizek’s theory, one which sets him apart from traditional conceptions of ideology. The question of the Real also cannot be separated from the dislocation and presentation of the truth, so these two must be considered together in asserting the concept of ideology. Zizek’s Real draws attention to a fascinating idea, that there is a difference between what is actually real in our world and what is simply a created real by our social structure and by society (Stavrakakis, 1997). The Real, the true real, is â€Å"the part of our world as revealed in our experience, which escapes our attempts to symbolize and represent it in a final way† (1997, p. ). The real is the raw and unstructured experience of what is not yet symbolized or imaged by our social structure, by language, by symbols, and it in fact cannot be symbolized in such a way. Unlike the social reality, the true Real is impossible to represent, explains Stavrakaki of Zizek’s theory, impossible to master or symbolize, whereas the social reality is nothing but symbolism and our desire to categ orize any part of our experience into a definition or material conception of some sort. The real is not only opposed to what is â€Å"socially constructed† as real, the symbolic, but also it is even farther removed from the imaginary, which falls farthest away on the spectrum, from true reality. The symbolic comes closer to the Real but there is still a gap and something will always be missing from the symbolic real for language can never be a full representation of the real, the true Real however is always in its place. The symbolic real, however is still of importance to Zizek, for it plays the largest role in our society and is perhaps the integral component to ideology in the most general sense. The symbolic, although generally in the dimension of lauguage, Lacan (who’s theories Zizek has based his own theories of ideology on) does not describe the symbolic as solely equal to language, because linguistiscs are also present in the realm of the imaginary sphere (Lucaites Biesecker, 1998). The symbolic rather, is about the relationship to the â€Å"Other†, it is about difference and the signifiers which create a symbolic order. For Lacan the symbolic is characterized by the absence of any fixed relations between signifier and signified† (Lucaites Biesecker, 1998). Lastly there is the realm of the imaginary, when Lacan discusses this stage he refers to the formation of the ego. Identification is an important part of the imaginary, for â€Å"the ego is formed by identifying with the counterpart or specular image† (Lucaites Biesecker, 1998). The ego, fundamentally narcissistic, is centered on identification with alienation and this alienation is another feature of the imaginary. The imaginary is most fundamentally, however, a constitution of surface appearances, ones which are formed in deception as part of the social order. Going back to Zizek’s theory on ideology, he suggests that one of the most problematic areas of the concept, is that we as theorists, try to escape from the grip of ideology in order to observe the world from an objective position, however the moment we feel we have managed to take up a position of truth, from which we can condemn the lie of an ideology, we instantly fall back into the grip of ideology again because our understanding of the concept is structured on a binary arrangement, which is constantly playing on this relationship between reality and ideology. It is such the issue of ideology, that the moment we feel we are in the realm of truth, at last, we are in fact instantly back into the ideological exchange, without recognizing it (Stavrakakis, 1997). Zezik does not offer a solution to this, however he offers a way to counter the problem, and this is where the concept of the Real (vs Symbolic vs Imaginary) comes into play, to help us recognize and step outside the atmosphere of ideology that surrounds us. Instead of the binary relationship between reality and ideology, now there is a three way relationship. Zizek favours the Real over the other two constructs because he argues, the symbolic, although it is representing â€Å"reality† it is in fact where â€Å"fiction assumes the guise of truth† (Stavrakakis, p. 3), and the imaginary construct, is of course even farther away from that reality, therefore the Real should be the focus of our understanding. The Real is the â€Å"only non-ideological position available,† and although Zizek does not claim to offer access to the â€Å"objective truth of things†, he explains we must begin with assuming the existence of ideology in every aspect of our society, and to take up an actively critical attitude towards it. This Stavrakakis argues is the main goal of Zizek’s theory, to expose the need for constant critique of the ideological realm, especially in a time where our society has proclaimed that ideology is a thing of the past and no longer relevant in today’s world. Zizek’s theory of ideology is a contemporary one which moves beyond traditional definitions of this concept and is not concerned with the way ideological practices worked in the past and in history, instead he is intrigued with the here and now and argues strongly that the concept of ideology is far from extinct in today’s society – contrary to what many would like to believe. And he explains that rather than discarding the notion completely, what we need to do to understand today’s politics in a completely new way of looking at it and defining what it means to be in ideological space and time. Those who believe we are past the concept of ideology, he argues, are in an â€Å"archeological fantasy† and this is only a sign of the greater ability of ideology to ingrain itself without our recognition. In some of his famous presentations Zizek talks about the ideological meaning ingrained even in the simplest of human object and appliances, ones we don’t even recognize contain an ideological message. His famous example, and one he self critically acknowledges to be some sort of anal fixation which he needs to address, is the example of toilets and how they are constructed in different ideological environments. In France he explains, toilets are constructed with the hole at the back, so that when used, the excrement falls directly in the hole and disappears; he equates this with France’s extremely liberal ideology – out of sight out of mind. In Germany, the toilets are constructed with the hole at the front, in a way that holds the excrement on a shelf (not in water or instantly disappearing) but rather in a way for the individual to see and observe the specimen for worms and any other diseases; he explains this is indicative of the strongly onservative ideology of Germany, where everything is business and completed as necessary. In the Anglo-Saxon world, specifically in America, he explains toilets are somewhere in between, when used the excrement falls in the water but still remains, it is not completely hidden but also not completely displayed; this shows the median position the Anglo-Saxon society usually takes on, not too extreme in either respect (Zizek presentation, You tube. com). This rather disgusting but nonetheless interesting observation does an excellent job of portraying his theory on ideology. First, ideology is very much still at play in our society and should be actively observed and considered (in order to minimize any negative and violent effects it may pertain), and secondly, in order to even be able to recognize the workings of ideology in our everyday lives, we have step outside of our customary reality to which we are so well accustomed to, for this symbolic reality is not the Real, and in taking ourselves out of the imaginary and symbolic which appears to be truth and reality, we can then perhaps attempt to get a true glimpse of what he calls the Real. References Gerofsky, S. (2010). The impossibility of ‘real-life’ word problems (according to Bakhtin, Lacan, Zizek and Baudrillard). Discourse: Studies In The Cultural Politics Of Education, 31(1), 61-73. doi:10. 1080/01596300903465427 Lucaites, J. , Biesecker, B. A. (1998). Rhetorical Studies and the ‘New Psychoanalysis: What’s the Real Problem? Or Framing the Problem of the Real. Quarterly Journal Of Speech, 84(2), 222. Stavrakakis, Y. (1997). Ambiguous ideology and the Lacanian twist. Journal of the Centre for Freudian Analysis and Research, 8, 117-30. Zizek, S. (1994a). The spectre of ideology. In S. Zizek (Ed. ), Mapping ideology (pp. 1-33). London New York: Verso. How to cite Zizek on Ideology and the Relationship Between Ideology and â€Å"The Real†, Papers

Monday, December 9, 2019

Development and Assessment Framework for Operations Excellence

Question: Discuss and critically assess the effect of operational excellence on sustainability for the cases presented. Answer: Critical analysis of the case study: As stated by Mitchell (2015), quality, responsiveness, maintainability and flexibility of the innovation cycle act as the major marketing tool for a firm or organization. The success of the organization depends largely on the values that add to the satisfaction of the customers. Any kind of strategy that is undertaken to improve the relationship with the customers makes the operation successful. It has been pointed out by Jaeger, Matyas and Sihn (2014), that any kind of operation that is made by keeping the customers perspective in mind proved to be fruitful. Sustainability is that state of organizational operation that is carried on to facilitate the customers need. In the recent market situation with the increasing competition, every organization remains in intense pressure to reduce cost without reducing the efficiency. An organization always benefits when it tries to reuse its waste products. For a construction company, huge wastes are generated with every operation (Golinska et al. 2015). Therefore, any approach that is undertaken to improve the operation of the Company results in favor of the organization. When efforts are made to increase the operational excellence of an organization, the outcome and the productivity increases by many folds. In the case study, it has been observed that the construction company had been using a number of sustainable approaches in various activities like supply chain manufacturing or delivering the products. Therefore, it can be easily said that the operational management towards sustainability will result in better economic and productive goals. Any action taken for sustainability approach will be fruitful for a construction firm. Reference list: Golinska, P., Kosacka, M., Mierzwiak, R. and Werner-Lewandowska, K., 2015. Grey decision making as a tool for the classification of the sustainability level of remanufacturing companies.Journal of Cleaner Production,105, pp.28-40. Jaeger, A., Matyas, K. and Sihn, W., 2014. Development of an assessment framework for operations excellence (OsE), based on the paradigm change in operational excellence (OE). Mitchell, J.S., 2015.Operational Excellence: Journey to Creating Sustainable Value. John Wiley Sons.

Thursday, December 5, 2019

Marxist Theorys On Economic Development Essay Example For Students

Marxist Theorys On Economic Development Essay What is wrong with the world today? Do people need to fight, argue and even go to war with each other? People debate whether the world would not be so full of hate if everything was equal. Well my answer to that is yes, people do need to fight, argue and go to war because thats human nature, our right of speech, and freedom! Some nations are considered to be evil and unjust because they are a communist nation, but are they really bad? One cannot blame a nation for trying to reach the ultimate goal of utopia. However, one must take notice that no country that exists today or in the past has accomplished this monumental task. I am not a supporter of todays communism at any means, but I do believe that a man long ago had the right idea. With some changes and a little work Karl Marxs theory could have made this world greater. We will write a custom essay on Marxist Theorys On Economic Development specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Karl Heinrich Marx was born May 5th, 1818 in Trier. Although he had three other siblings, all sisters, he was the favorite child to his father, Heinrich. His mother was a Dutch Jewess named Henrietta Pressburg. Marx was the greatest thinker and philosopher of his time. His views on life and the social structure revolutionized the way in which people thought. He created an opportunity for the lower class to rise above the aristocrats and failed due to the creation of the middle class. Despite this failure, he was still a great political leader and set the basis of Communism in Russia. His life contributed to the way people think today, and because of him people are more open to suggestion and are quicker to create ideas on political issues. It is important to understand that Marx played two important roles in world history: as a critic of capitalism and as an advocate of socialism. Although a strong believer in the importance of building socialism, he spent most of his time and energy on a complex critique of the capitalist system. This critique is still very influential on many historians, art and literature scholars, sociologists and others. There have been many neo-Marxisms which have bee n based more or less loosely on the original ideas of Marx and which are widely discussed today. Whether you want to explore such ideas or combat them, its good to have some notion of the subject. The terms socialist and communist have been defined in an astonishing variety of ways. When reading them it is always important to know what the writer means by them. A good example of a this would be to look at the countries today is China a communist nation or a socialist nation? How do you tell them apart? China indeed is in-fact a communist nation, but there is large speculations that they are viewed as socialists. For Marx socialism was the more comprehensive term; communism was an advanced stage of socialism. Socialism would prepare the way by nationalizing the means of production (factories, farms, mines, and transportation) and putting them under the control of those he viewed as the sole producers of wealth: the workers. He viewed political equality and freedom as incomplete (or even illusory) without economic equality. Therefore this redistribution of economic power was aimed at extending democracy far beyond the limits envisioned by earlier democratic revolutions. Social s ervices like health, education, and housing would be provided free, but people would still be paid wages according to their work. I dont know about you or the next person but free health care, housing, and schooling would be a wonderful thing. Everyone always wants to have something better than the next person does. But what if everyone had the best? What if everyone was driving a Mercedes or lived in a 4000 square foot house? Is that so bad, does that mean we have no rights? But like I said earlier Marxs theory does need some work I dont believe that our freedom of speech or things of such should be touched. Marxs explained his theories in a book. .ud0e064a3384abba3cd1cec6e76d3f00a , .ud0e064a3384abba3cd1cec6e76d3f00a .postImageUrl , .ud0e064a3384abba3cd1cec6e76d3f00a .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ud0e064a3384abba3cd1cec6e76d3f00a , .ud0e064a3384abba3cd1cec6e76d3f00a:hover , .ud0e064a3384abba3cd1cec6e76d3f00a:visited , .ud0e064a3384abba3cd1cec6e76d3f00a:active { border:0!important; } .ud0e064a3384abba3cd1cec6e76d3f00a .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ud0e064a3384abba3cd1cec6e76d3f00a { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ud0e064a3384abba3cd1cec6e76d3f00a:active , .ud0e064a3384abba3cd1cec6e76d3f00a:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ud0e064a3384abba3cd1cec6e76d3f00a .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ud0e064a3384abba3cd1cec6e76d3f00a .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ud0e064a3384abba3cd1cec6e76d3f00a .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ud0e064a3384abba3cd1cec6e76d3f00a .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ud0e064a3384abba3cd1cec6e76d3f00a:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ud0e064a3384abba3cd1cec6e76d3f00a .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ud0e064a3384abba3cd1cec6e76d3f00a .ud0e064a3384abba3cd1cec6e76d3f00a-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ud0e064a3384abba3cd1cec6e76d3f00a:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Shakespeare and Prospero EssayCommunist Manifesto or Manifest der Kommunistischen Partel was a book written by Marx. It documents the objectives and principals of the Communist League, an organization of artist and intellectuals. It was published in London in 1848, shortly before the revolution in Paris. The manifesto is divided into four parts, and the beginning of the entire document reads A specter is haunting Europe (Encyclopedia of Marxism)The first part outlines his ideas on history and a prediction on what is yet to come. He predicts a confrontation between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie, the working class and the higher class. Because of the main logic behind capitalism the bourgeoisie will seek more power and more wealth. With them doing this, the living conditions of the proletariat will decrease. Numbers of proletariat will increase as well as their political awareness, and will revolt against the bourgeoisie and will eventually win. (Encarta)In the second part Marx discusses the importance of Communism, and if private property is abolished, class distinctions will be as well. The second part also stresses the importance of the necessity of the proletariat and bourgeoisie being common and the level of class being the same. (Encarta)The third part critiques other social ideas of the modern day. The final and fourth part discussed the differences between his political issues as opposed to those of the other parties. This part ends in bold capital letters WORKINGMEN OF ALL COUNTRIES, UNITE! (Encarta)When all nations had developed socialist economies, they would begin to evolve into an international communist society. The vision of commun ism was very similar to that of anarchism. A stateless society in which central government had withered away, local, ground-up control of all affairs by strictly democratic processes based at the place of work, abolition of the market system (witch means no buying no selling). Its replacement by a system according to which people would voluntarily work for the common good to the extent they were able under the understanding that they could receive whatever they needed for free (Britannica). This basically stated that everyone would do their share of work and receive it back. National boundaries and governments having been eliminated, war would cease. The secret to the Marxist idea working is that everyone has to cooperate together. Everyone must be willing to work, and give up the possessions they love having so much. This would be a wonderful world. People today should not have to worry about simple basic needs like health care, food and water. Every man who works should be provide d for because of his contribution to the system. Marx thought of money simply as a symbol, an example of how much a person works. In conclusion the problem in todays politics is simple, governments are not all the same! When people differ even in the mildest manner they tend to clash. The only way to fix this is to do what Marx suggested to make things equal. However, I do not believe that our God given rights of speech and freedom should be taken away. I end with the same quote as Karl Marx did: WORKINGMEN OF ALL COUNTRIES, UNITE!BibliographyBibliography?Karl Marx? Encyclopedia Britannica. (03 Dec. 2000). ?Karl Marx? Encyclopedia Encarta. (03 Dec. 2000). Bagain, Brian: ?Communist Manifesto.? Encyclopedia of Marxism (03 Dec. 2000) History Essays

Monday, December 2, 2019

Sociologcical Analysis Front and Back Stage free essay sample

Goffman describes that we give a â€Å"performance† every day to the people we interact with. He describes this performance as the presentation of self, a person’s efforts to create specific impressions in the minds of others. This process is sometimes called impression management. There is a distinction between the† front â€Å"and â€Å"back stage† behavior. As the term applies, â€Å"front stage† actions are visible to the audience and are part of the performance. In other words, it’s what is presented to the individuals we interact with. â€Å"Back stage† behaviors are set off when no audience is present.It is usually in an area not visible to the audience and where the individual acts completely different from how they would act in front of the audience. Behaviors that wouldn’t be acceptable in front of the audience are carried out in the â€Å"back stage†. Before these interactions an individual typically prepares a role, or impression, that he or she wants to make on the other. We will write a custom essay sample on Sociologcical Analysis: Front and Back Stage or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page These roles vary and depend on the term â€Å"breaking character†. This is basically when an unexpected intrusion occurs; a backstage performance is interrupted by someone who is not meant to see it. This makes a big problem, where the front stage and back stage behaviors are mixed up and the roles are confused. In addition to this, the way the audience for a personal performance plays a part in determining the course it takes. For example, we typically ignore many performance flaws, such as if someone trips or spits as they talk. Basically as Goffman states, we in everyday life engage in performances of the self in a way similar to an actor portraying a character. I have myself used the â€Å"front stage† and â€Å"back stage† concepts throughout several situations in my life.At my previous job, I used to work as a waiter at Wolfgang’s Steakhouse. It was a very demanding job and of course taking into the fact it was a popular restaurant; it was always busy. Customers of all backgrounds would come to eat here all of them being elite, wealthy individuals. There would always be certain individuals that would be so demanding and always had some kind of problem. Since this job requires keeping the customer happy and of course â€Å"the customer is always right† makes any request by him/her undeniable. At times there will be nothing wrong with the food, but he/she will find a problem with it.This gets very frustrating and at times I wish I could curse them out. This is where the â€Å"front and back stage† behaviors come into play. I’ll get endless requests from a customer, â€Å"the steak is cold†, â€Å"the soda is flat†, â€Å"the food needs to be cooked more† etc. My â€Å"front stage† behavior will not show any frustration or anger towards the customer. In fact, I’ll reply with an â€Å"I will fix that for you right away† and take his/her food back with a smile. I’ll continue this â€Å"front stage† behavior until I reach the kitchen, which is the area invisible to the customer.When I’m in the kitchen my â€Å"back stage† behavior kicks in, I’ll release my anger in there, shouting at the chefs, or even making a nasty comment about the customer. I’ll also talk with the other waiters telling them what an arrogant, demanding person the customer at the table I’m serving is. The other waiter will usually be in a similar situation and tell me about the demanding customers he/she is having too. As I leave the kitchen, my â€Å"front stage† behavior comes back in and I’ll greet the customer with a smile saying â€Å"here’s your new food, let me know if there are any other problems†. Through the rest of the night, this cycle will usually continue, switching back and forth from â€Å"back stage† to â€Å"front stage† roles. One important thing I had to be careful of was to not be heard by the customer, since the bathroom was next to the kitchen. One of the waiters was overheard by the customer as he was walking to the bathroom. This resulted in him getting fired due to the complaints of the customer to the restaurant manager. Everything gets complicated if the â€Å"back stage† role mixes in with the â€Å"front stage† role. Front stage† and â€Å"back stage† concepts are really useful in these types of situations. If a waiter didn’t have the â€Å"back stage† to vent out his anger and frustration, this would affect his behavior towards the customer. I think the waiter would eventually treat the customer with disrespect and poor service. With this kind of behavior it results in losing your job and no one wants that. It’s important that these roles stay separate because it is part of the waiter’s job to keep the customer happy, no matter what. In addition to this, there are certain things the audience shouldn’t be seeing or hearing.After all, you don’t want to reveal everything to your public. Every individual needs to have a â€Å"front stage† and a â€Å"back stage†. This provides a balance in the way we interact with individuals, with any situation it really does prevent problems. These concepts aren’t here randomly they truly do help us in our everyday lives and the interactions that come with it. This analysis really made me think further about the concept of â€Å"front and back stage†. It was really interesting to see how much of an impact the two â€Å"stages† have in my everyday life, especially at my previous job as a waiter.On a smaller scale, we each perform â€Å"front stage† and â€Å"back stage† behaviors on daily basis. Our â€Å"front stage† is how we act in public, going to school, work, and just being outside in general. Our â€Å"back stage† is when we’re at home, in our rooms, typically alone, when no one is home. It’s really interesting to see that these concepts really do shape us as individuals and how we interact with one another. Goffman had a point when he said we’re like actors performing, because we actually are, we play different roles depending on the situations we’re placed in.These concepts expose our lives from an interesting aspect and actually define us as individuals. I think if it wasn’t for the â€Å"front† and â€Å"back stage† life would be boring, there would be no secrets, and more importantly individuals wouldn’t have a chance to vent out and just act themselves. I think the â€Å"front stage† isn’t really who an individual is, it’s what is accepted and is just an example of how we adjust to society’s norms. The â€Å"back stage† is who we are as individuals, this is a big advantage because we can act ourselves and really not have to control our actions as much.

Thursday, November 28, 2019

Why God Cannot Exist Using Descartes Arguements Essays -

Why God Cannot Exist Using Descartes' Arguements Philosophy 300 Sam Black God Cannot Exist Using Descartes' Argument Steve Cara JIBC/SFU Cohort #1 May 25th, 2000 Descartes sets about proving the existence of God through his meditations on knowledge in an effort to prove the skeptics of his time wrong. He first determines that human knowledge is based entirely too much on unproved presuppositions. He argues that this makes it difficult to distinguish between truth and error, since we cannot recognize true knowledge. Descartes proposes that the quest for knowledge must be based upon universal doubt. Specifically, he proposes the following in relation to his universal methodic doubt: 1. In order to seek truth, it is necessary once in the course of our life, to doubt, as far as possible, of all things. 2. We ought also to consider as false all that is doubtful. 3. We ought not meanwhile to make use of doubt in the conduct of life? 4. Why we may doubt of sensible things. 5. Why we may also doubt of mathematical demonstrations. 6. We cannot doubt of our existence while we doubt, and this is the first knowledge we acquire when we philosophize in order. Descartes proceeded to strip away his knowledge base in order to determine the one indubitable fact, Cogito, ergo sum. From this absolute knowledge of his own existence, he set about deducing the existence of God through ontological argument. ? In our minds, the idea of God is one of an infinitely perfect Being ? An infinitely perfect being must have existence, otherwise it would not be infinitely perfect. ? Therefore, God exists. In proving the existence of God, Descartes set the groundwork for determining that God created man. He further postulated that God, being infinitely perfect and not a deceiver, could not have provided man with the deceptive powers of knowledge. Therefore, man's mental faculties are determined to be trustworthy provided we separate what there is of clear and distinct in the knowledge from what is obscure and confused. Using this reasoning, man must discard all previous knowledge which is doubt-ridden, all sensory-based knowledge (as perceptions can be misleading), and all intellection. As a result, skepticism is removed and valid knowledge possible. Descartes primary purpose was the defense of human knowledge against the attacks of the skeptics. He was justified in excluding preconceived notions, presuppositions, and traditions in determining the limits of knowledge. Descartes discarded the ability of the mind to know truth and the human abilities of contradiction and sufficient reason. In doing so, he made a solution to the problem impossible. As it relates to his theory of the existence of God, Descartes universal doubt refutes his own conclusion as to God's existence. Descartes formed an idea of God as an infinitely good being. He would have had to discover this idea within his own mind. According to his principle of universal doubt, he cannot simply know whether his conception of God is correct or incorrect. He would have, as a matter of his own principle, considered it as false until proven otherwise. Therefore, since the idea of God is in doubt, the trustworthiness of man's reasoning must also be doubtful and Descartes cannot escape his own real doubt. Descartes uses a process of reasoning, a mathematical formulae, in attempting to demonstrate God's existence. If his reasoning is of demonstrably doubtful validity, how can Descartes demonstrate God's existence? The validity of Descartes reasoning is supposed to flow as a consequence of the infinite perfection of God; and God's infinite perfect is made certain through Descartes' reasoning powers before he has even proven that these reasoning powers are valid and trustworthy. Descartes assumes the very thing beforehand which he intends to prove afterwards. (Begging the question). Descartes accepts the trustworthiness of his faculties in demonstrating the existence and infinite perfection of God, and that is illegitimate. A doubtfully valid faculty will produce a doubtfully valid argument which will, in turn, produce a doubtfully valid conclusion. The entire argument for God's existence is therefore nullified by a suspect reasoning process. Since he proves the reliability of his reason and process by means of God's veracity, the proof of his reliability cannot be established beyond doubt. Thus, Descartes attempt to vindicate the validity of human knowledge failed, because, by rejecting the reliability of his own powers

Wednesday, November 27, 2019

Application of the spiral of silence theory Essays

Application of the spiral of silence theory Essays Application of the spiral of silence theory Paper Application of the spiral of silence theory Paper This public opinion concept refers to the way in which ‘the commonwealth is held together by prevailing views, habits and prescribed behavior;’ from which none can deviate ‘without running the risk of being ostracized’. (Noelle-Neumann, 1989, p. 6). The fear of isolation is the centrifugal force that accelerates the spiral of silence. (Griffin, E. M. ,2009). It is believed that most of the reason of the following suit behavior is that people like to be respected and do not want to be isolated. But, this theory still has some limitations. The critics of this theory most often claim that individuals have different influences that affect whether they speak out or not. Research indicates that people fear isolation in their small social circles more than they do in the population at large. When they are at work, they are in their small social circles, this fear of isolation is stronger than the fear of being isolated from the entire public. Also, personal characteristics will have an influence on whether a person will willingly speak out. Naturally, if one has a positive self-concept and lacks a sense of shame, that person will speak out regardless of how she or he perceives the climate of public opinion. (Ross, C. , 2007). Another important element for people not to speaking out is culture. What culture a person lives in affect their minds directly. Not every culture holds freedom of speech in as high regard as the United States, and in some cultures, open expression of ideas is forbidden. (Ross, C. , 2007) Scheufele Moy, further assert that certain conflict styles and cultural indicators should be used to understand these differences. Although the spiral of silence theory caused a lot of controversy, it still has a practical significance. Internal communication plays a key role in all organisations, particularly regarding employee engagement. Nowadays, all companies are experiencing rapid growth. P. Sanchez(1999) asserts that doing business and managing change makes effective internal communication a critical success factor. When internal corporate communication becomes smooth, managers could collect useful advice and wisdom, understand different point of view and evaluate different levels of suggestions, providing more reference for their decision-making. Maybe a little suggestion from one subordinate can have a greatly influence on the interests of the company. Furthermore, through the communication, employees feel comfortable and are respected, it will establish their loyalty and make them care about the development of not only themselves but the whole company. In fact, their engagements directly affect the company’s performance. The theory provides a unique perspective that the final consequence of the discussion in company is not the rational opinions and may be the convergence of the strong opinions. Sometimes, the strong opinions are not accurate and result in the wrong choice of managers. Because of the spiral of silence, some people hold their opinions in mind and do not speak it out, they will lose their enthusiasms of their work and make no contribution to the company. Usually, those people’s opinions are known as adverse opinion, which are opposite to the leadership or the mainstream. It may be correct, also may be wrong. So we cannot just treat it as wrong opinion. Only if the administrators make it clear, the employees would disclose their true own opinion. It is not normal that there is not a voice against the majority opinions, this actually means managers do not play a good role in creating a free, democratic environment for employees. As time passes, the staff are too lazy to put forward their opinions. If so, the managers of company will lose so many value aspects of the different voice. Amounts of adverse opinions may stimulate some other new, fresh ideas, sometimes these ideas are even better than the original advantageous opinions . For minorities to stimulate the thinking of the other group members, the minorities have to share their opinions. Factors that might encourage people to express minority opinions would include having personal qualities that can offset the risk ( Hollander, 1958); getting support for their position ( Latane Wolf, 1981; Tanford Penrod, 1984); and having a positive and accepting social atmosphere in the group ( Hackman, 1987). In fact, creating a nonjudgmental atmosphere is the cornerstone of group discussion techniques designed to maximize participant contributions (e. g. , Delbecq, Van de Ven, Gustafson, 1975; Osborn, 1957). There is no doubt that the existence of the spiral of silence in company is the last thing managers want to see. If it exists, minority will not comment about many things, they bend to the public opinion. Several different opinions precisely are the indispensable condition of making correct decisions. Critically, that doesn’t mean managers should adopt the minority opinions all the time. When discussing adverse opinions, managers should not reject them flatly, but let employees fully expound them views and reason, and then analysis their opinions seriously. The reasonable part should be accepted and the unreasonable part should be abandoned. Since some few people’s insights are profound, decision-makers need to determine whether the strategy should be changed. Managers must be able to recognize those wrong opinions, and according to their different properties, adopt appropriate methods. In order to maintain the enthusiasm of staff, it is important for managers to treat all opinions of the staff equally, no matter they are right or wrong, positive or negative and valuable or not valuable. For those right and valuable opinions, managers should not only verbally accept them, but give the presenters praise and reward. For those abandoned opinions, it is important to encourage the presenters to continue to point their opinions out. Only totally understand how the spiral of silence theory works in the enterprise and treat the disadvantageous opinions properly, administrators could create a smooth channel of internal corporate communication.

Sunday, November 24, 2019

Teenage Pregnancy Essay Example

Teenage Pregnancy Essay Example Teenage Pregnancy Essay Teenage Pregnancy Essay as seen in Table 1. Thus, it appears that although a smaller percentage of teen-aged women plan their pregnancy than older women, for a substantial percentage (42. 6%) the pregnancy is unintended but not unwanted. Conceptualising and defining unplanned, unintended and unwanted pregnancies can be complex.A relatively reliable indicator of the unwantedness of a pregnancy (for whatever reason) is termination of pregnancy (TOP). Buchmann, Mensah and Pillay (2002) found the following age-related TOP rates at a hospital in Soweto, as measured over an eight-week period: 13 to16 years: 23% 17 to19 years: 14. 9% 20 to 34 years: 12. 7% 35+ years: 16. 2%. According to these statistics, more young teen-aged women have unwanted pregnancies than do older women. Low rates of termination of pregnancy (3%) were reported in the national household survey (Pettifor et al. 2005). This low level of reportage may, however, have to do with the stigma attached to termination of pregnancy. POTENTIAL CONSEQUE NCES The disruption of schooling The relationship between early pregnancy and school disruption is complicated. Data presented in Macleod (1999a) indicated that many young women who became mothers in fact left school before pregnancy. More recently, 20. 6% of the pregnant teenagers in the survey conducted by Manzini (2001) in KwaZulu-Natal had left school prior to conceiving.The 2003 General Household Survey statistics indicate that of all the females who had dropped out of school, only 13% cited pregnancy as a reason (Crouch, 2005). Nevertheless, this is higher than the 10. 3% in the household survey conducted amongst urban black youth by Richter (1996), prior to the introduction of the Schools Act, which prevents discrimination against pregnant learners. For those who leave because of pregnancy, a significant new factor may be the Department of Education? s (2007) guidelines entitled „Measures for the Prevention and Management of Learner Pregnancy? hat makes it possible for educators to „request? that learners take a leave of absence of up to two years. There are thus numerous factors, besides pregnancy, that lead to school leaving. Some of the major reasons for leaving school before the end of Grade 12 include poverty, frustration associated with the inexperience of teachers, a lack of relevance of the curriculum and teaching materials, the absence of parents at home, and the need to care for siblings or sick family members (Human Sciences Research Council, 2007).Biddecom and Bakilana? s (2003) investigation of the transition to adulthood through significant events in young people? s lives (first sex, stopping school, pregnancy, birth and union) provides a glimpse into the complexity of the sequencing of these events. The researchers conclude that adolescents seldom experience all five events during their teenage years, and that there is â€Å"more disorder than order in terms of the variety of combinations and chronological sequences of import ant social and family formation transitions† (p. 15).Studies reviewed in Macleod (1999a) indicated that a substantial minority of pregnant or mothering young women did not plan to return to school. More recent evidence gives a better picture of actual returns (as opposed to plans to return). Manzini (2001) found that 48% of young women who left school because of pregnancy returned to school. The major reason cited for not returning to school was the need to care for the child. In the survey by Grant and Hallman (2006) 29% of the 14-19 year-old women and 52% of the 20-24 year-old women who had dropped out of school had returned.With every year that passes the chance of a return to school diminishes, with very little chance of return after four years (Grant Hallman, 2006). Various reasons for drop-out and return have been explored. Lloyd (2005) ascribes the drop-out rates to the child support grants (see later discussion of the controversy regarding this). Grant and Hallman (20 06) found that prior poor school performance (e. g. non-pregnancy-related repetition of grades) and having to be the primary caregiver for the child are strongly associated with the likelihood of dropping out when pregnant.In terms of returning to school, Kaufman, De Wet and Stadler (2000) suggest that the increased bride price that accompanies higher educational status is a motivating factor for parental support in this regard. Grant and Hallman? s (2006) data suggest that young women are more likely to return to school if they have never repeated a grade or withdrawn temporarily from school before, and if they live with an adult female. The presence of older female relatives allows a young mother to relinquish domestic duties to older women and return to school.Young women who marry and move to their husband? s household may, however, have increased domestic responsibilities and there may be less support for their continued education (Matthews, et al. , 2008). Grant and Hallman? s (2006) study debunks the frequently made assumption that, were young women not to conceive, they would continue their education. They discuss the concept of disengagement from school in which young women perceive few opportunities emerging from participating in education.If there is little incentive to participate in school, there is also little incentive to avoid pregnancy. For some young women it is a rational option to leave an unsatisfactory situation at school for the role of motherhood. It is possible, however, that not only school engagement but also school attendance is a protective factor against teen pregnancy. Harrison (2008) argues that school leaving, either through dropout or completion, represents a significant change in the life circumsta nces of young women.This is supported by statistics that indicate that there is an increase in pregnancy and HIV infection after school leaving, with the proportion of 17-18 year-olds who have been pregnant being nearly four times that of 16- year-olds. Early reproduction and health The studies cited in Macleod (1999a) that had a health focus tried to tease out the obstetric outcomes of early pregnancy. Some of these studies showed increased risks, while others ascribed the risk to socio-economic status or poor antenatal care. We failed to locate any recent South African research on the obstetric outcomes of early pregnancy.Instead the focus has shifted to concerns over the increased risk for young women in terms of contracting HIV (Jewkes, Vundule, Maforah Jordaan, 2001) and the level of antenatal care young pregnant women receive. According to the 2003 SADHS, compared to pregnant women 20 to 34 years old, pregnant women under the age of 20 are more likely to receive care from a nurse or midwife than from a doctor and are more likely not to receive care at all. The components of antenatal care also reflect less adequate antenatal care for younger women compared to women in the age category of 20 to 34 years .They are less likely to be informed of the signs of pregnancy complications, to have their weight, height and blood pressure measured, to have urine and blood samples taken or to receive iron supplements. Many young women report for antenatal testing only in their second or third trimester. This should be seen in the light of the finding that late presentation for pregnancy care is a general and persistent problem in South Africa (Myer Harrison, 2003). In addition, taboos associated with teenage sexual activity, denial of paternity by a male partner and lack of nowledge regarding the importance of antenatal consultations may be reasons for late attendance (Phafoli, Van Aswegen Alberts, 2007). Women who have accessed urine pregnancy testing tend to seek care up to four weeks earlier than those who have not. Barriers to young women accessing urine pregnancy testing within the public health sector include ignorance of protocols on the part of service providers and a negative attitud e to providing pregnancy tests for teenagers on the basis that this encourages them to be sexually active (Morroni Moodley, 2006). The outcomes of early reproduction for childrenResearch reviewed in Macleod (1999a) pointed to inadequate mothering, neglect, maltreatment and abuse as consequences of early childbearing. The concern about whether these effects were owing to the age of the mother or constraints imposed by poverty were raised. Interestingly, we were not able to locate any recent research that spoke to the issue of mothering or neglect/abuse. Data, albeit contradictory (see below), is, however, available on mortality rates. The 2003 SADHS is inconsistent in terms of its reportage of mortality rates by age of mother. Table 2 below contains figures featured in Table 6. of the 2003 SADHS. (Neonatal mortality is the probability of dying within the first month of life; post-neonatal mortality is the difference between infant and neonatal mortality; infant mortality is the prob ability of dying in the first year of life; child mortality is the probability of dying between exact age one and five; under-five mortality is the probability of dying between birth and exact age five). Data in the table indicate that, on all indices, children born to mothers below the age of 20 have a lower mortality rate than those born to women between the ages of 20 and 39 years.However, the text below this table in the 2003 SADHS states that, â€Å"The relationship between maternal age and child mortality shows the expected U-shape with women younger than 20 years having higher infant and under-five mortality rates than women between 20 and 40 years of age. † This appears to be in direct contradiction to the figures presented. It is not clear which of these (the figures or the statement) is accurate. The conditions that most frequently account for infant deaths are complications in the perinatal period (22%) and low birth weight 20%). Although it is possible that these conditions are more pronounced for young women who give birth, further clarification of the above contradictory data is required. Welfare concerns – the child support grant Macleod (1999a) reported that concerns around welfare dependency were a feature of the Euro-American, but not the South African, literature on teen-aged pregnancy. This is no longer true. With the introduction of the child support grant (CSG), research on the possibility of the CSG acting as a „perverse incentive? as been conducted. The popular concern, as raised in the South African media, that young women are deliberately conceiving in order to access the CSG is supported, to a certain extent, by the PPASA (2003) survey in which it was found that 12. 1% of pregnant teen-aged women who had deliberately conceived cited the CSG as the reason. However, other research (Department of Social Development, 2006; Makiwane Udjo, 2006) concludes that there is no evidence that the CSG leads to a „pervers e incentive? to conceive.These authors base their conclusion on the following: (1) early fertility decreased after the introduction of the CSG; (2) only 20% of teen-aged mothers are beneficiaries of these grants; (3) older female relatives who take over care of the child are often beneficiaries rather than the teen-aged mothers; (4) of those who would qualify for the grant, the proportion of teen-aged mothers taking them up is considerably lower than those in older age groups; and (5) during the period in which the CSG has been offered, rates of termination of pregnancy have increased.Indeed, the fact that many young women who are eligible for the grant are not receiving it should be of concern. In general, the CSG is associated with an increase in school attendance, and improved child health and nutrition, which in turn contributes to schoolreadiness of the child, as well as extra money to pa y for school fees and uniforms (Case, Hosegood Lund, 2005). The concern about the social cost of early reproduction through teen-aged mothers depending on welfare has also been criticised within the United States. Researchers compared teen-aged mothers with teenagers who were pregnant but had a miscarriage (i. e. ho would have been mothers had the miscarriage not occurred). Their conclusions are startling, given the usual assumption in the United States that early reproduction contributes to welfare dependency. They state that if all teenagers delayed childbearing, public assistance expenditure would increase slightly and that the lifetime earnings of these women would decrease (Hotz, McElroy Sander, 1996). CONTRIBUTING FACTORS While not all pregnancies amongst young women are unplanned, and not all unplanned pregnancies are unwanted, more young women find their pregnancies problematic than do women in their middle reproductive years.It is these young women specifically who should be assisted in terms of preventing unwanted pregnancies. An understanding of the contribu tory factors (which are complex and interweaving) is required for this to occur. Knowledge and sources of knowledge Within the context of HIV, much emphasis has been placed on education about condom usage. James, Reddy, Taylor and Jinabhai (2004) found that secondary school learners in the Midlands district of KwaZulu-Natal had a high level of knowledge regarding the causes of and protection against HIV/AIDS and STIs. In studies more directly related to contraception (e. . Oni, Prinsloo, Nortje, Joubert, 2005; Richter Mlambo, 2005), young people? s knowledge has been found to be variable, with some misconceptions abounding. For example, in Rutenberg et al.? s (2001) household survey in KwaZulu-Natal, few respondents (8%) knew about the menstrual cycle and the times a woman has the greatest chance of falling pregnant. This knowledge improved slightly with age. However, 80% of their sample knew that a woman could get pregnant if she had sex only once, almost all (99%) knew of at lea st one method of family planning, and 72% could name more than two.White respondents, urban African respondents and female respondents were more likely to know of more than one method than other respondents. Research on young people? s knowledge of emergency contraception is new. Indications are that this knowledge is quite poor. Mqhayi et al. (2004) found that only 17% of the young women they interviewed at urban and rural public health clinics had heard of emergency contraception, with significantly more urban-based women knowing of its existence than rurally-based women. These trends seem to mirror the knowledge of this kind of contraception in the general population (Smit et al. 2001). Macleod (1999b) noted that: There are a number of difficulties associated with the research which investigates the reproductive ignorance hypothesis. Firstly, the implied one-to-one correspondence between reproductive ignorance and teenage pregnancy is spurious. Obviously, a lack of sexual knowled ge is not a sufficient condition for conception, nor is it even necessary (p. 8). This is now recognised by researchers. For example, Ehlers? (2003a) survey suggests that young women in Tshwane know about contraceptives, but that this knowledge is not necessarily associated with effective usage. 5. 9% of the sample of pregnant young women knew of contraceptive methods but had still conceived. Abel and Fitzgerald (2006) argue that a rational, decision- making model regarding contraceptive usage, that equates knowledge with usage, ignores contextual issues which may prevent young women, especially, from negotiating condom usage. Young men and women are exposed to messages regarding sexuality and contraception from a variety of sources. These includ e elders, peers, the mass media, and formal, institutional sources uch as life skills programmes and family planning services. Parents are enjoined by a variety of sources to speak openly to their children about sexuality and to provide sex education. Ho wever, this may be an unrealistic expectation. Similar to the research reviewed in Macleod (1999b), recent research indicates that it is generally difficult for parents to engage in this kind of interaction with their children (Madu, Kropiunigg Weckenmann, 2002). Despite these barriers, a number of interventions, such as the PPASA? s parent education programmes and loveLife? Born Free dialogues, are aimed at parents to sensitise them to the need to speak with their children about sexual matters. What is becoming clear in the literature are the nuances of interaction between parents or elders and young women. MacPhail and Campbell? s (2001) research shows that while older women provide little or no information to young women, they will assist in taking a young woman to the family planning clinic. Although some young women are informed of a link between menstruation and pregnancy, their understanding of the nature of the association remains vague.Most often young women are admonished to stay away from boys, meaning that abstinence rather than contraception is emphasised. Adult surveillance may also actively impinge on contraceptive use. Information about youths? visits to family planning clinics, and about their suspected relationships and sexual activities is passed on to relevant others, who in turn reprimand the youth in question. As with research reported in Macleod (1999b), peers are found in recent research to be a frequent source of information (Rutenberg et al. , 2001).Again, however, peer communication is viewed as a double-edged sword. While some of their messages provide valuable information, some perpetuate the mystification and silence surrounding sexual matters. In contrast to research reviewed in Macleod (1999b), research in the last decade has concentrated more on the mass media, including magazines and radio and television broadcasts. This must be viewed in the light of recent efforts such as the sexual health campaign run by lov eLife. Research indicates that these media have reasonable reach – about half the population (Rutenberg et al. 2001) – although reception may be gendered, with more males than females being exposed to the messages (Oni et al. , 2005). Exposure to messages in the mass media has been positively associated with increased condom usage (Katz, 2006). Formal, institutional sources of knowledge, where operational, appear also to be effective in terms of imparting knowledge. For example, life skills education in schools has been shown to be of some benefit in terms of promoting sexual and reproductive health knowledge and perceived condom self-efficacy (Magnani et al. 2005). Nevertheless, there is still some way to go, and implementation appears to be uneven. For example, teenagers in Bushbuckridge, Limpopo, stated that they had not received school education that enabled them to understand sexual intercourse, sexually transmitted diseases, contraception, negotiation of sexual r elationships, and the difficulties of single parenthood (Richter Mlambo, 2005). Use of contraceptives It appears that some inroads are being made in terms of contraception use amongst teenagers.Moultrie and McGrath (2007) report from the Demographic Surveillance Site in rural KwaZulu-Natal that between 2000 and 2005 the proportion of young people who had e ver had sex remained relatively constant, but that contraceptive usage increased significantly. Simbayi, Chauveau and Shisana (2004) report a similar trend of increased contraceptive usage in their national survey as compared to findings from the 1990s. Dinkelman, Lam and Leibbrandt (2007) found a significant increase in condom usage and a decrease in multiple partners between 2002 and 2005 amongst women aged 17 to 22 years surveyed in the Cape Area Panel Study.Although contraception usage appears to be increasing, this varies considerably depending on a number of factors, including location and education. According to the 2003 S ADHS, women in rural areas and in the Eastern Cape and Mpumalanga, and those with lower levels of education, reported the lowest condom use. These trends are confirmed by Mqhayi et al.? s (2004) comparative study of rural and urban public health facility users, and by Kaufman, Clark, Manzini and May? s (2004) survey in KwaZulu-Natal.Factors that prevent the use of contraceptives that were reported in recent research are similar to those listed in Macleod (1999b). These include perceived lack of risk, peer norms, gender power relations (MacPhail Campbell, 2001), lack of availability and access, fear of adult attitudes to contraceptive usage, and the economic context of adolescent sexuality (Ehlers, 2003a). Research is beginning to tease out the nuances regarding contraceptive usage. For example, using condoms at sexual debut and speaking to partners about condoms have been reported as indicators of condom use at the respondents? ost recent sexual interaction (Hendriksen, Pettifor, L ee, Coates Rees, 2007), with one survey finding that younger respondents were less likely to speak to their partners than older ones (Manzini, 2001). Garenne et al.? s (2001) research in the Agincourt subdistrict of Limpopo Province shows that contraceptive usage increases significantly amongst young women after first birth. Data from the SADHS shows that youth are currently more willing to use contraceptives prior to first birth than previous cohorts of women. As indicated above, research on emergency contraceptives is new.I n the study by Mqhayi et al. (2004) only two out of 193 women had used emergency contraception, although 39% reported having had unprotected sex in the last year although they did not wish to conceive. Timing of first sexual intercourse and age of sexual partner The average age of sexual debut reported in recent research is somewhat older than that reported in Macleod (1999b), where the average reported age at first coitus was around 14 years. In the 2003 SADH S, the median age of first intercourse is reported consistently across all age groups to be around 18 years, in Pettifor et al.? (2005) nationally representative survey it is around 17 years, and in Simbayi, Chauveau and Shisana? s (2004) nationally representative survey, 16. 5 years. In the 1998 SADHS survey 46% of women reported that their first sexual encounter occurred before the age of 18. This percentage dropped to 42% in the 2003 SADHS survey, indicating a possible general trend in delaying first intercourse. Despite this, early sexual debut is a feature for a sizable minority of young teenagers. Factors affecting sexual debut, including education, provincial location, race, and orphan status, are elucidated more learly in recent research than in that reported in Macleod (1999b). According to the 2003 SADHS, there is a difference of one to three years in age at first sex between the lowest and highest education groups. The provinces reporting the lowest age of sexual debut ar e the Eastern Cape and Mpumalanga. The percentage of reported first sex by age 15 was lower among whites, Indians and coloureds than among Africans. Urban versus non-urban location did not make any difference. In a separate study, it was found that orphaned teenagers had an earlier sexual debut than non-orphans (Thurman, Brown, Richter, Maharaj Magnani, 2006).The age difference between partners and the possibility of transactional sex has gained more attention in recent research than was reported in Macleod (1999b). Jewkes, Vundule, Maforah and Jordaan (2001) report a mean difference of 5. 1 years in age between pregnant young women and their current partners in their sample of young women in Cape Town. This differed significantly from a comparison group of young women who were not pregnant, where the mean difference in age between partners was 4 years. Dunkle et al. (2007) report that 17. % of male participants in their study aged 15 to 26 admitted to engaging in transactional sex , and that a male partner was more likely to perpetrate genderbased violence within the context of a transactional sexual relationship. Factors affecting contraceptive use and risky sexual behaviour Macleod (1999b) reported that: The South African research on risk-taking behaviour is mostly descriptive in nature. Researchers in the United States have extended this to investigating the factors associated with risk-taking behaviour and to developing cognitively based theoretical models which may account for this behaviour in certain adolescents (p. 0). This has changed in the last 10 years with researchers analysing and theorising factors associated with sexual risk taking. This is possibly owing to the increased research into young people? s sexual behaviour in the light of the HIV epidemic. Brook, Morojele, Zhang and Brook (2006) researched the multiple pathways to risky sexual behaviour amongst young people through studying the relationship between what they call the proximal facto rs (personality, emotional status and behavioural tendencies), intermediate factors (parent-teenager relationship, peer influence) and distal factors (socioeconomic conditions).Their conclusion is complex, but illustrates the important role that poverty plays in sexual behaviour: The first pathway showed that poverty is related to a weak parent-child relationship, which in turn is related to vulnerable personality and behavioral attributes. Vulnerable personality and behavioural attributes are then observed to be related to associating with deviant peers, which in turn is related to risky sexual behaviour. The second pathway demonstrated that poverty is related to associating with deviant peers, which in turn is linked to vulnerable personality and behavioral attributes and risky sexual behaviour.A reciprocal relationship was observed between associating with deviant peers and having vulnerable personality and behavioural attributes. The third and fourth pathways show that family po verty and deviant peers are directly associated with risky sexual behaviours. †¦ There was no direct link between personality and behavioral risk factors and risky sexual behavior, but we found that this relationship †¦ was mediated by associating with deviant peers (p. 270).Researchers have used a range of social cognitive theories to explain sexual risk behaviour at a personal and interpersonal level amongst young people. For example, Jemmott et al. (2007) found that adolescents who had positive attitudes to condoms and positive behavioural control beliefs (i. e. believed they could use condoms effectively) had firmer intentions to use condoms than their peers. Bryan, Kagee and Broaddus (2006) found HIV knowledge and positive outlook (self-esteem and future optimism) to be associated with the intention to use condoms.The theory of planned behaviour holds that the intention to use condoms is the main determinant of actual use, an assertion that is supported by the researc h of Bryan, Kagee and Broaddus (2006). Boer and Mashamba (2007) found a gender difference in the psychosocial correlates of intention to use condoms. Among the males in their sample, attitude to condoms and subjective norms (perception of the normative beliefs of significant others and motivation to comply with these norms) were associated with intended condom use, while for females attitude to condom and self-efficacy were related to intended condom use.They relate this difference to the gender power imbalances prevalent in many young people? s lives, which means that young women need to have high levels of self-efficacy in order to negotiate condom use within a sexual relationship. S imilarly, Sayles et al. (2006) found that respondents with high self-efficacy engaged in fewer sexual risk behaviours. Perception of risk has been argued to play a role in sexual behaviour. It appears that the threat of contracting HIV is currently a significant factor in motivating young people to us e condoms (Varga, 2000).Despite this, the calculation of costs versus benefits may sway young people towards non-use of condoms. For some youth, decreased physical pleasure and fears of physical consequences (e. g. condom getting stuck in the womb) mitigates against consistent usage of condoms (James et al. , 2004; Varga, 2000). Beliefs concerning what using a condom means are also a factor. Young women? s carrying of condoms or insistence on their use during sex may be seen as a sign of promiscuity, infidelity, or HIV infection.This negativity does not extend to males (Varga, 2000). Harrison, Xaba and Kunene (2001) suggest that male youths understand condoms as something to be used within a casual relationship, while female youths see them as a signal of love and trustworthiness. Varga (2000), however, notes an overarching perception that condoms threaten trust and intimacy between partners. At an interpersonal level, messages from significant others and the ability of young people to negotiate with their partners about contraception have come under the spotlight.Boer and Westhoff (2006) indicate that communication concerning condoms is evident from both strong ties and weak ties within young people? s social networks. However, the level of positivity varied widely, with the most positive messages coming from teachers, mothers, and close friends, and negative messages coming from teachers propagating abstinence and from close friends. Their research indicates that young people tend to conform to messages (either positive or negative) if these messages are provided by strong social ties, but not if they are provided by weak social ties. Violent and coercive sexual relationshipsDunkle et al. (2004) found in their sample of women attending antenatal clinics in Soweto that over half of the women aged 15 to 30 had experienced physical and/or sexual violence from male intimate partners, with nearly one-third reporting incidences in the previous 12 months. Another s urvey, conducted by the PPASA in six provinces, found that 20% of teenaged females reported forced sexual encounters or had been sexually assaulted. While the research on violent and coercive sexual relations appeared in the review by Macleod (1999b), more is now understood concerning its relation to early sexual debut and early pregnancy.For example, Dunkle et al. (2004) found that the median age of first intercourse amongst their participants was 17 years. However, 97% of women who reported first intercourse before 13 years, and 26. 7% of those reporting at the ages of 13 and 14 years also reported non-consent to coitus. Data confirming forced or coerced sexual debut is provided by Rutenberg et al. (2001) and Jewkes and Abrahams (2002). Jewkes et al. (2001) found that the partners of pregnant young women in their sample were more likely to be older, to not be in school and to have multiple girlfriends than the partners of non-pregnant young women.The pregnant women experienced sig nificantly more violence in their relationships and were more likely to have been forced to have sex for the first time. Similar to research reported in Macleod (1999b), the gender dynamics underpinning coercive sex have received attention in recent research. Varga (2000) contends that gender ideology enforces double standards in behaviour and inhibits the ability of young women to negotiate with a partner. Constructions of masculinity in part rely on sexual performance, particularly the construction of isoka, a dominant and sexually vigorous version of masculinity.However, the threat of HIV seems to have diminished this norm, with young men reporting being more cautious than in previous studies. Jewkes and Christofides (2008) suggest that paternity is so important to masculinity, that some young men might actively seek an opportunity to father a child. Cultural factors Macleod (1999b) reported that the exploration of cultural factors in relation to teen-aged pregnancy fell into two broad camps – the breakdown of tradition and the cultural value placed on fertility. The first of these has received less attention in the last 10 years.The practice of vaginal inspection, which was reported as one of the traditional practices that was being broken down, has, however, been debated. Recent initiatives have attempted to use this rite to promote abstinence from sexual intercourse and as a means of avoiding STIs and pregnancy. Maluleke (2003) argues that while there is reason to believe that the rite can be used to pass on valuable information regarding reproductive health to young women, it is a gendered cultural institution. The procedure is seen as demeaning to the women who are tested, and as a violation of personal privacy.There are also possible unintended outcomes, including older men seeking out younger women because of their potential virginity and low HIV risk status (Simbayi, Chauveau Shisana, 2004). The cultural value placed on fertility has receive d less attention, although PrestonWhyte (1999) and Jewkes and Christofides (2008) discuss the issue. They indicate that women of all ages in most African societies experience pressure to have children. Importance is placed on fertility and procreation, such that young women may be labelled as barren if they do not conceive. Pregnancy is understood as the epitome of womanhood.Childbirth may be regarded as a rite of passage, and thus raises the status of a young woman. Furthermore, pregnancy is valued by young African women for the meaning it imparts to re lationships. In the context of multiple relationships, an acknowledged pregnancy may strengthen bonds between partners. Health service provision Macleod (1999b) reported on research which found that access to service provision was difficult for young people. There seems to be some change in this, although there are still difficulties. The majority of participants in MacPhail and Campbell? (2001) research reported obtaining their con doms from the local clinic. In a national sample of adolescent mothers (Ehlers, 2003b), the majority reported waiting only 30 minutes to receive assistance at a family planning clinic, and 86% experienced nurses as being very helpful. The Department of Health? s National Adolescent Friendly Clinic Initiative (NAFCI) was begun in 1999 and works with service providers to improve the quality of health care for young people. Research has identified changes in the perceptions of youth when a clinic has received NAFCI support (Dickson, Ashton Smith, 2007).However, this is not universal and access to condoms is especially difficult for young women who have to negotiate the negative attitudes of nurses at some local clinics (MacPhail Campbell, 2001). CONCLUSION A number of shifts in focus with regards to research on the consequences and contributory factors of teen-aged pregnancy are evident in this review. Researchers no longer pontificate about the obstetric outcomes of teen-aged pregna ncy, but rather concentrate on the services that are provided to young women.The mothering capabilities of young women do not feature as a research question, although (contradictory) data on infant and child mortality rates are available. Relationship difficulties with family of origin and partner, which were reported on in Macleod (1999a) are no longer really an issue. Demographic concerns have disappeared from the radar screen, but welfare concerns have emerged with the introduction of the CSG. Disruption of schooling remains a topic of debate with respect to the outcomes of early pregnancy. Reproductive knowledge, the source of knowledge, sexual debut and the use of contraceptives remain as central points of focus.Researchers seem to have lost interest in expounding early menarche, psychological problems, family structure, and peer influence as contributory factors, all factors that featured in the research reported in Macleod (1999b). Coercive sex and cultural issues remain of i nterest to researchers, although more nuance is evident in the former and less in the latter. The level of health service provision, as a contributory factor, continues to be an important area of focus. In general, we feel that the quality, depth and breadth of the research have improved over the last ten years.This is as a result of (1) the nationally representative as well as localised health surveys being conducted, (2) researchers? teasing out of the nuances surrounding particular issues (such as school return; CSG; interactions between young people and elders around sexual issues, condom usage, and coercive sex) and (3) increased levels of theorising around particular issues. The data that we have access to and the engagement of researchers with the complexities of issues arguably provides a much better basis for thinking through, planning and implementing interventions. Teenage Pregnancy Essay Example Teenage Pregnancy Essay Teenage Pregnancy Essay Essay Topic: Teenage Pregnancy The problem of teenage pregnancy is usually seen as a controversial issue, which affects not just the mother and her child but society as a whole. Teenage pregnancy happens among women under age 20. This problem is not limited to culture, religion, education or moral values and beliefs. Here are some facts: Every year almost a million teenage girls become pregnant. The U. S. A has double the adolescent pregnancy and birth rates than any industrialized country. One- third of the girls who became pregnant as teenagers keep their babies (Teenage pregnancy, Robert T. Brown, 2002). What are the causes of teenage pregnancy? What do parents do wrong? In this essay, I would like to present some of the causes and effects of teenage pregnancy. There are three main factors that have an influence on teenage pregnancy: media, family and wanted pregnancy. The Media is one of the factors that could diminish the sexual risk that adolescents take. However, a lot of advertisement and entertainment are obsessed with sex but they usually do not show the negative consequences of sex. People on TV or movies are depicted as having sex without consequences, which leads to young people thinking that sex is safe and they do not have to worry about the consequences of their acts. Family is the most important thing for many people. But in the last decade, people started to spend most of their time at work. As a result of this change they do not have time for their children. The absence of communication leads to loneliness and unhappiness in their children. They do not feel loved so they start looking for love somewhere else. Many of the adolescents are not particularly developed to make decisions based on reasoned understanding of the future consequences of their actions. This is called immaturity (Teenage pregnancy, Robert T. Brown, 2002) Young people also have a feeling of being protected from risky behaviour. They hope that anything bad will not happen to them. This personal myth leads to unprotected sexual activity, with all it’s consequences. (Teenage pregnancy, Robert T. Brown, 2002)Girls in teen age are more sensitive about things that are happening around them. They often feel lonely and upset. Low self-system is often connected with depression. This may lead to sexual activity, alcoholism or drug addiction. Girls who grow up without father have a tendency to look for older man who can give them the feeling of being loved and protected. Teenage pregnancy, Robert T. Brown, 2002)Wanted pregnancy is a special type of teen pregnancy. Girls become pregnant because they really want to. They want to make their partners happy or they expect that the baby will give them love. Other girls see peers in their social circles having a baby. And because the government contributes certain amounts of money f or children, they can see the material benefit for themselves and their families (Teenage pregnancy, Robert T. Brown, 2002)The effects of teenage pregnancy are not limited to having to decide whether or not to keep the baby. The pregnancy influences society, the mother’s health, finances and emotions. One of the biggest problem are finances: Most working mothers who have had children too early are not qualified enough to get a better paying job. The amount of money they earn is sufficient only for survival. It leads to cheap, unhealthy food, unsanitary houses and poorly equipped school for children and defective medical care. A single mother is also forced to pay bills and utilities as others but in her case it is a big problem. Inability to support her child and pay bills causes physical and mental stress. Dealing with an unplanned pregnancy has a great impact on a girl’s psyche and emotions. It is not just about changes in her body: there are other factors which a teenage mother has to deal with. This includes frustration, initial excitement, fear, resentment or confusion. Young mothers become overwhelmed with the pressure of supporting their children financially. Children suffer for the mistakes of their parents. Children raised by teenage parents start their lives with a handicap. They are automatically placed in the lower class. Children become lonely and confused. Many of these children end up having their own children at an early age. Because of poor education they end up in dead-end jobs, jail or joblessness. (The effects of teen pregnancy on children, Waltohar)In developed countries, teenage pregnancy usually happens outside of marriage, and for this reason it is viewed as a social stigma in many communities and cultures. By contrast, in societies were teen parents are wed pregnancy is welcomed by the family and society. However, in these societies, early pregnancy may combine with malnutrition and poor health care to cause medical problems (Teenage pregnancy, Wikipedia 2006)The most immediate effects of pregnancy are changes in the body. A teen’s body immediately starts the process of adaptation and for preparation for childbirth. A teenager needs to consider the effects of activities on a baby. Because activities common for teenagers, such as drinking alcohol, smoking cigarettes, lack of sleep or unhealthy eating can have an impact on a growing child. Complications in pregnancy and childbirth are the leading cause of mortality among young girls. There are several factors which could help to solve this problem. Sexual education can teach effective contraception if teenagers choose to have a sex. It educates people about the risks of alcohol, drugs and unprotected sex. In my opinion, however, the most important thing is that parents should realize that they provide for young people during their teen years and that they should find time for talk with their children.